Spatial and seasonal assessment of surface water quality for domestic use in a semi-arid area of the Upper Kebir Sub-basin, NE Algeria

The present study was conducted out in the Upper Kebir Sub-basin [North East (NE) Algeria] aiming to evaluate the status and spatial–seasonal variability of water quality for domestic purposes using hydrogeochemical parameters and water quality indices. Surface water samples were collected from 27 selected sites, in 2020–2021 during both the wet and dry seasons and were analysed for 22 parameters. The findings were compared with WHO standards and the water quality indices were calculated. The analysis revealed that the basin was mainly polluted and showed significant seasonal and spatial variations in water quality, considerably influenced by climatic conditions (surface runoff) and human activities (urban sewage and agricultural activities). The results reveal significant spatio-temporal fluctuations and highlight areas likely to be affected by anthropogenic activities.