A cross-cultural analysis of transparency: the interplay of law, privacy policies, and user perceptions

� Transparency requirements in privacy and data protection laws, like the General Data Protection Regulation in the EU, the California Privacy Rights Act in the state of California in the USA, and Personal Information Protection Law in China, play an essential role in informing individuals, civil society, and authorities about how personal data are processed in digital services and products.� These transparency mandates should also lay the groundwork for the implementation and enforcement of data protection measures, empowering individuals to better protect their data.� However, while various data protection regulations encompass transparency requirements, the understanding and application of transparency principles across different jurisdictions lack uniformity, which could be a result of cultural differences.� This article aims to address this research gap by conducting a cross-cultural analysis of privacy and data protection transparency requirements in the European Union, California, and China, the practice of transparency manifested through privacy policies and the perceptions of transparency by users in the three jurisdictions.