This paper examines the different interpretations of the distinction between closed and open societies put forward by Henri Bergson, Leo Strauss, Karl Popper, and Gilles Deleuze. These vary both in the features attributed to the two kinds of society, especially to openness, and in the authors' evaluations of what they describe. The similarities and differences between their views are documented in detail, and their significance considered.
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Martyn Hammersley (2024) studied this question.
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