War, words, and wealth: exploring the differences between cyber, digital, and tech diplomacy

This article provides a conceptual review of the terms commonly used to describe the digitalisation of diplomacy: cyber, digital, and tech diplomacy. Via an exploratory survey mapping the conceptual landscape around the three terms, we differentiate each based on large-N bibliometric data and in-depth review of past literature. We argue that these concepts can be distinguished based on their orientation towards rationales of defence and security (“war”), dialogue and representation (“words”), and innovation and technological advancement (“wealth”), respectively. As such, cyber diplomacy comprises discussions on cybersecurity as well as issues of sovereignty in internet governance; digital diplomacy covers the use of social media tools for public diplomacy goals and for consular work; and tech diplomacy involves states’ efforts to draw near to innovation centres and the rising importance of big tech in international relations. The article concludes with a synthesis of the comparison and a recommendation that future research explores: intermediate categories not covered in this scheme and the impact of recent developments, such as great power rivalry and the rise of AI, over the digitalisation of diplomacy.