Bladder exstrophy-epispadias-cloacal exstrophy complex: characteristics, aetiologies, and epidemiologic findings

Bladder exstrophy-epispadias-cloacal exstrophy complex (BEEC) is a spectrum of congenital urologic anomalies that involve the bladder, urethra, genitalia, and pelvic musculoskeletal system, and can affect urinary continence, sexual health, and fertility. BEEC includes a wide spectrum of anatomical abnormalities with different levels of severity: epispadias represents the mildest phenotype, classic bladder exstrophy (CBE) is the most common defect, and cloacal exstrophy (CE) - often referred to as omphalocele, exstrophy, imperforate anus, and spinal defects (OEIS) complex - is the most severe form. BEEC disorders cause significant health problems and affect the health-related quality of life (QoL) of affected individuals. There have been significant insights into the aetiology of BEEC in the last decade. Specifically, recent genetic studies have suggested that downstream regulator(s) of