This chapter reviews some of the more recent developments of frameworks for causal inference, using Campbell’s familiar work on validity types and threats as a touchstone from which to examine two alternative frameworks: the potential outcomes framework (Rubin, 1974, 1978; Imbens & Rubin, 2015) and structural causal models and their respective graphical representation (Pearl, 2009a; Spirtes et al., 2002; Wright, 1923).
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Steiner et al. (2024) studied this question.
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