Groundwater in the coastal areas of Ghana: Quality and associated health risks

Self-supply water sources, particularly groundwater sources, play key roles in the water supply ecosystem of developing countries. Recent studies indicate that groundwater sources in coastal communities in Ghana are under threat from improper waste management practices, seawater intrusion and atmospheric aerosol deposition. In this study, Water Quality Index (WQI) and Nemerow's Pollution Index (NPI) were employed to assess groundwater quality in four coastal communities of Ghana. The health risks associated with metal pollution of groundwater were investigated using incremental life cancer risk and hazard quotient. pH of groundwater in all the studied communities were acidic during the rainy season. Electrical conductivity ranged from 0.44 to 2.61 mS/cm in the rainy season and from 0.43 to 2.45 mS/cm in the dry season for the four studied locations. Results also showed brackish conditions and mineralization of groundwater in Winneba, Accra, and Keta. Mean nitrate concentrations in Winneba and Accra were higher than the WHO standards for both the rainy and the dry season. Arsenic was higher than the acceptable level in Accra and Keta during the dry season, while iron was higher than the acceptable levels in Accra in both the rainy and dry seasons. Principal Component Analyses showed that Pb, As, and Fe had the highest loading in the first component in Essiama, while PO