Retrieval practice effect and individual differences: current status and future directions

Retrieval practice – the act of retrieving information from memory – can be implemented into educational contexts to improve learners' long-term retention. Here, we provide a narrative review that explores whether individual-difference variables moderate the retrieval practice effect. Studies have examined cognitive, personality, motivational, and attitudinal factors. No consistent relationships between retrieval practice effect and individual-difference variables were identified. Interpreting this literature is challenging due to methodological heterogeneity across studies. We describe the dual-memory framework and the working memory dependent dual-process account, two theoretical accounts that can generate theoretically-driven predictions for future individual-difference studies. In addition, we propose the following research agenda: (a) investigate the test-retest reliability of the retrieval practice effect under experimental paradigms typically used in studies on individual differences; (b) explore the relationship between individual differences and retrieval dynamics in free-recall tests; (c) pursue close replications; and (d) conduct investigations in real-life classrooms.