Foreign language learning boredom: Refining its measurement and determining its role in language learning

This cross-sectional and longitudinal study sought to refine the measurement of foreign language learning boredom (FLLB) and examine its links with overall/skill-specific second and foreign language (L2) achievement (curriculum-based course exam scores) and proficiency (Cambridge English test scores). In Substudy 1, we developed and validated an 11-item Foreign Language Learning Boredom Scale–Short Form among secondary and tertiary English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in China ( n 1 = 2,223, n 2 = 504, n 3 = 934, n 4 = 1,109). The scale showed sound psychometric properties (i.e., construct/criterion/convergent/discriminant/predictive validity, reliability, and measurement invariance across time and groups). In Substudy 2, structural equation modeling results show that FLLB had a consistent modest negative effect on overall and skill-specific (vocabulary and grammar, listening, reading, and writing) L2 achievement and proficiency ( n 4 = 1,109). Substudy 3 was a 12-month three-semester longitudinal investigation ( n 4 = 1,109). Cross-lagged panel modeling results show that L2 achievement predicted subsequent FLLB negatively, while FLLB did not predict subsequent L2 achievement.