Low concentrations of TNF‐α in vitro transform the phenotype of vascular smooth muscle cells and enhance their survival in a three‐dimensional culture system

Background Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are commonly used as seed cells in tissue‐engineered vascular constructions. However, their variable phenotypes and difficult to control functions pose challenges. This study aimed to overcome these obstacles using a three‐dimensional culture system. Methods Calf VSMCs were administered tumor necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐α) before culturing in two‐ and three‐dimensional well plates and polyglycolic acid (PGA) scaffolds, respectively. The phenotypic markers of VSMCs were detected by immunofluorescence staining and western blotting, and the proliferation and migration abilities of VSMCs were detected by CCK‐8, EDU, cell counting, scratch, and Transwell assays. Results TNF‐α rapidly decreased the contractile phenotypic markers and elevated the synthetic phenotypic markers of VSMCs, as well as markedly increasing the proliferation and migration ability of VSMCs under two‐ and three‐dimensional culture conditions. Conclusions TNF‐α can rapidly induce a phenotypic shift in VSMCs and change their viability on PGA scaffolds.