Direct visualization of the guidewire into the inferior vena cava and catheter tip positioning by fluoroscopy is considered the gold standard for tunneled hemodialysis catheter placement (tHC). Kächele et al. describe their experience of ultrasound (USG) guided tHC placement without fluoroscopy in more than 130 patients during COVID-19 pandemic.
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Flores et al. (2024) studied this question.
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