Resolvin D2 attenuates LPS‐induced macrophage exhaustion

Abstract Early in sepsis, a hyperinflammatory response is dominant, but later, an immunosuppressive phase dominates, and the host is susceptible to opportunistic infections. Anti‐inflammatory agents may accelerate the host into immunosuppression, and few agents can reverse immunosuppression without causing inflammation. Specialized pro‐resolving mediators (SPMs) such as resolvin D2 (RvD2) have been reported to resolve inflammation without being immunosuppressive, but little work has been conducted to examine their effects on immunosuppression. To assess the effects of RvD2 on immunosuppression, we established a model of macrophage exhaustion using two lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatments or hits. THP‐1 monocyte‐derived macrophages were first treated with RvD2 or vehicle for 1 h. One LPS hit increased NF‐κB activity 11‐fold and TNF‐α release 60‐fold compared to unstimulated macrophages. RvD2 decreased LPS‐induced NF‐κB activity and TNF‐α production but increased bacterial clearance. Two LPS hits reduced macrophage bacterial clearance and decreased macrophage NF‐κB activity (45%) and TNF‐α release (75%) compared to one LPS hit, demonstrating exhaustion. RvD2 increased NF‐κB activity, TNF‐α release, and bacterial clearance following two LPS hits compared to controls. TLR2 inhibition abolished RvD2‐mediated changes. In a mouse sepsis model, splenic macrophage response to exogenous LPS was reduced compared to controls and was restored by in vivo administration of RvD2, supporting the in vitro results. If RvD2 was added to monocytes before differentiation into macrophages, however, RvD2 reduced LPS responses and increased bacterial clearance following both one and two LPS hits. The results show that RvD2 attenuated macrophage suppression in vitro and in vivo and that this effect was macrophage‐specific.