Empowering communities: The role of wearable devices in environmental justice

Department of Built Environment and Environmental Health and Disease Laboratory, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina, United States of America Abstract: This paper delves into the emerging role of wearable devices in the realm of environmental justice and public health monitoring, offering a novel perspective on how technology can empower communities, especially those facing disproportionate environmental challenges. It provides an in-depth analysis of various wearable sensor technologies, including air quality monitors, UV exposure sensors, and water quality sensors, highlighting their significance in real-time environmental and health data collection. The research underscores the importance of these devices in enabling marginalized communities to actively participate in monitoring and responding to environmental health hazards. By facilitating access to personalized and location-specific environmental data, wearable technologies not only raise individual awareness but also contribute to community-level advocacy and action. Furthermore, the paper explores the potential advancements in wearable technologies through the integration of AI and machine learning, enhancing their effectiveness in data analysis and interpretation. However, it also critically examines the challenges associated with data privacy, security, and accessibility, emphasizing the need for inclusive and equitable technology deployment. This study is significant for its contribution to understanding the intersection of technology, environmental health, and social justice. It argues that wearable devices can be transformative tools in achieving environmental justice, providing communities with the means to gather evidence, advocate for change, and protect public health. The findings of this paper are pertinent for policymakers, public health officials, and environmental justice advocates seeking to leverage technology for societal benefit. Keywords: Wearable devices, environmental justice, public health, sensor technology, air quality monitoring, environmental health hazards Correspondence: Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi, PhD, MPH, Department of Built Environment and Environmental Health and Disease Laboratory, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North C 27411, United States. Email: eobenggyasi@ncat.edu; IntroductionEnvironmental justice (EJ) is defined by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) as the equitable treatment and meaningful involvement of all individuals, irrespective of "race, color, national origin, or income, in the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies" (1).EJ studies scholar Robert Bullard defines environmental justice as a principle of "equal protection and equal enforcement of our environmental, health, housing, land use, transportation, energy, and civil rights laws and regulation" (2).EJ means every individual should be protected, and no group should be disadvantaged or suffer the impact of environmental issues. Individuals, whether majority, minority, rich or poor should have the opportunity to live in a clean and unpolluted environment. EJ is not only about protecting the population from environmental conditions but also about creating a clean and safe environment for individuals to thrive and enjoy a good life.The EJ movement is often recognized as having its roots in the 1982 Warren County protest in North Carolina. This significant event marked a pivotal moment in civil rights and environmental activism, as it brought together a diverse coalition of residents, civil rights activists, and political leaders. They united in response to the proposed construction of a landfill site for the disposal of soil contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), a group of highly toxic chemicals. This proposal came after the discovery that over 32,000 cubic yards of PCB-contaminated soil had been illegally dumped along roadways in fourteen North Carolina counties in 1978. The protest in Warren County, a community significantly impacted by these actions, stands as a landmark event in the ongoing struggle for environmental justice and equity, highlighting the intersection of racial, social, and environmental issues (3).Even though the protest in Warren County did not ultimately prevent the disposal of PCBs in the area, it nevertheless succeeded in raising the issue of environmental justice to national and international prominence (4). This movement was crucial in spotlighting environmental injustices, particularly how they disproportionately affect marginalized communities in the United States. Following the protest, there was a heightened governmental and scholarly focus on understanding and addressing environmental disparities. This increased attention led to extensive research into the patterns, impacts, and potential solutions for environmental inequities, especially in historically underserved areas.Research findings over the years have consistently highlighted a troubling trend: communities with predominantly African American populations and those of lower socio-economic status were more likely to be selected for the disposal of hazardous waste. This practice not only posed severe environmental risks but also had significant health implications for the residents of these areas. The Warren County protest thus stands as a landmark event in the ongoing efforts to achieve environmental justice and equality, shedding light on the intersection of environmental issues with racial and socio-economic factors (5). This recognition further emphasized the need for comprehensive action to rectify these injustices.Numerous essential research studies have outlined that individuals from marginalized communities, including people of color, those with lower socioeconomic status, indigenous and immigrant populations, are disproportionately impacted by environmentally harmful infrastructures. These infrastructures include landfills, mines, incinerators, polluting factories, and disruptive transportation systems. Additionally, these communities bear a higher burden of negative consequences stemming from ecologically harmful practices, such as climate change/disruption and pesticide exposure (6).Inhabitants of marginalized communities face the dire consequences of environmental injustice, primarily due to their limited access to costly, advanced tools for assessing environmental pollutants. Furthermore, their reliance on governmental authorities to gauge pollution levels often results in agonizingly slow responses (7). State-provided environmental monitoring methods, including air and water quality assessments, soil sampling, and noise pollution evaluations, can be resource-intensive and often inefficient in timely service delivery to impacted communities. It is increasingly critical for residents in marginalized areas to adopt cost-effective, personal monitoring tools to assess environmental pollution levels. This approach not only facilitates a more direct understanding of pollution's impact but also empowers these communities to advocate effectively against detrimental environmental decisions.Wearable environmental monitoring devices can offer a practical solution, particularly for residents in underserved communities. These devices are capable of tracking a range of environmental parameters, such as air quality, temperature, and humidity, directly in the wearer's immediate surroundings. By employing these tools, individuals can obtain real-time data on the extent of environmental pollution, providing a basis for informed community action.This strategy represents a shift from relying solely on traditional, often costly, state-managed monitoring methods. By pooling resources, communities can collectively invest in these wearable devices, thereby enhancing their capacity to independently monitor and respond to environmental challenges, fostering a more sustainable and healthy living environment. Wearable devices: A potential solution for environmental monitoringWearables, defined as compact electronic devices or wireless-enabled computers seamlessly integrated into everyday accessories, clothing, or gadgets, provide a valuable avenue for marginalized communities to manage their environmental health actively. Some iterations of these wearables, like micro-chips or smart tattoos, represent more invasive options. These wearable technologies are primarily designed for collecting, transmitting, and analyzing data typically gathered from human or animal bodies. They can encompass purely mechanical devices or sophisticated mechatronic systems, skillfully constructed using a combination of sensors, actuators, and computational components (8).As per Gao et al (9) wearable electronics refer to devices designed to be worn or attached to human skin for the continuous and close monitoring of an individual's activities, without causing interruption or restriction to the user's movements. Building on this definition, wearables can be succinctly described as electronic devices that are worn as accessories on the human body. They are equipped with integrated sensors to continuously track and display various personal metrics. These metrics often include daily physical activity, heart rate, and sleep patterns, monitored in real time. Common examples of such devices encompass smartwatches, smart glasses, wearable cameras, and virtual reality headsets. Each of these wearables offers unique functionalities and contributes to the growing utility of personal electronic monitoring in everyday life. Compared to conventional devices, these flexible electronic devices are low in cost and power efficient in their consumption, allowing uninterrupted data acquisition over a long time (10). Wearable devices are on high demand because of its numerous advantages in health care monitoring, environmental and noise pollution, entertainment, communication, and many others. Also, due to their cost-effectiveness, wearable devices can serve as a means for marginalized communities to monitor their environment and assess the impact of pollution on their lives. This approach empowers them to resist decisions that affect their health and environment. By narrowing down the specific details and insights collected through these devices, individuals or communities invested in environmental health are better prepared to address concerns in both practical and political contexts (11). Types of wearable devices The surge in demand for wearable devices can be attributed to their multifaceted functionalities, applicable across various personal and industrial domains. Prominent examples of wearables include smartphones, smartwatches, fitness trackers, and smart glasses, each offering a unique set of features. Smartphones, primarily serving as communication tools through text messages and voice calls, also host a plethora of applications for mapping, weather forecasting, and monitoring daily steps and heart rate.Smartwatches go beyond merely displaying time; they are instrumental in tracking overall wellness by monitoring daily movements, heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature, among other metrics. Similarly, fitness trackers are not just limited to counting daily steps and distance traveled. They offer a comprehensive view of one's health by tracking sleep patterns, calculating total daily calorie burn, and continuously monitoring heart rate, thus contributing significantly to the personalized health monitoring landscape. Other smart device Smart glasses: Wearable devices equipped with features beyond traditional eyewear. These glasses typically incorporate a small computer or display module, enabling them to provide information directly to the wearer. The recording and shooting functions of smart glasses may violate others' privacy. However, as long as the purpose is clear and the monitor system is perfect, smart glasses will not become a threat to privacy but a practical life assistant and medical tool. Google, for example, already plans to introduce contact lenses with built-in sensors that can detect users' blood sugar levels.Smart clothes and socks smart clothes: They collect body data from users through fabric sensors and collection devices, which can be used to monitor users' exercise data and heat consumption. Also, there are smart baby clothes for infants to monitor their physical condition. Smart shoes: Smart sneakers mainly collect users' sports data to help users improve their sports plans better. In addition, some smart sneakers have new motion detection functions, such as Nike's FuelBand SE, which reminds users to stand up and take a move once in a while. Smart earphones: Smart headphones have new methods of applications, such as intelligent voice analysis and processing, which allow users to operate the equipment more conveniently using voice commands. In the future, it may be possible to integrate sensors directly into in-ear headphones to monitor heart rate, body temperature, and movement (12) Evaluating health risks linked to toxic exposure remains a formidable challenge in the realm of environmental justice. Established connections between specific chemical exposures and certain health conditions are well-documented. However, quantifying exposure levels—including the concentration, duration, and appropriate measurement methods—continues to be a contentious and complex task. This complexity is further amplified by the difficulty of distinguishing these exposures from other concurrent environmental factors (13,14). In the context of environmental justice and the potential role of wearable devices, it's crucial to understand the concept of marginalized communities and the root causes of disparities and inequalities in our society. Marginalization refers to a systematic process in which specific groups are excluded or pushed to the fringe of political and socioeconomic spheres. This relegation is often based on factors such as race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, geographical location, religion, language, sexual identity, and disability status. Understanding this framework is essential for addressing and mitigating the environmental injustices these communities face (15). Causes of disparity in marginalized communitiesA striking example of systemic disparity can be seen in a 1984 report by Cerrell Associates, commissioned by the California Waste Management Board. This report candidly advised both industry and state authorities to strategically site waste incinerators in neighborhoods characterized by "lower socioeconomic" status. The rationale behind this recommendation was grounded in the perception that these communities would present a significantly reduced likelihood of political opposition, highlighting a calculated approach to exploiting socioeconomic vulnerabilities (16).In a 1996 paper, Heiman and colleagues (17) discussed a notable example of environmental disparity. Their research revealed the existence of a major commercial hazardous waste management site at a landfill in Adams County, Colorado, and an incinerator in East Liverpool, Ohio. Both of these facilities were located in areas with predominantly Caucasian populations. In a striking contrast, the paper identified that three of the largest hazardous waste landfills, which accounted for over forty percent of the nation's total permitted commercial capacity for hazardous waste, were situated exclusively within two African-American communities (Emelle, Alabama, and Alsen, Louisiana) and one Hispanic community (Kettleman City, California). Remarkably, Kettleman City did not have its own waste management facility. This situation underscored a concerning pattern in environmental justice, highlighting how communities of color were disproportionately impacted by the placement of hazardous waste facilities (17).Communities that have been historically marginalized continue to grapple with the stark realities of environmental injustice. These groups, frequently facing discrimination due to factors like race, economic status, gender, or disabilities, are often deprived of essential societal benefits and opportunities. This disparity is evident in their lack of access to adequate healthcare, education, and sanitation infrastructure, among other basic necessities (6). Significantly, Black communities and those living in lower socioeconomic conditions are the most vulnerable to environmental hazards, including air, water, soil, and noise pollution. The deep-seated causes of these environmental injustices are multifaceted and complex, as discussed in the following sections. Historical inequities Throughout American history, Black communities have faced persistent marginalization, a legacy that originates from the country's foundational years and its intricate history with slavery. The systemic racism, economic inequalities, and societal disparities that continue to impact Black communities today are deeply rooted in this period, where slavery was an entrenched institution in American society (18).The legacy of slavery left an indelible mark on the development of the United States. Black people were subjected to unimaginable discrimination and the denial of fundamental rights. This tragic history laid the groundwork for the systemic racism that persists in various forms. Economic disparities have persisted as a consequence of centuries of unequal treatment, with Black individuals being deprived of opportunities and resources (19).These historic injustices have contributed to a stark contrast in the exposure and health outcomes of Black communities when compared to other racial groups. The consequences of this deep-seated discrimination continue to be felt today, underscoring the need for ongoing efforts to address and rectify these disparities (20). In the history of the United States, minority communities have endured subpar educational systems, with even those fortunate enough to attend schools often facing bullying and discrimination based on their racial background. This unfortunate reality has led to a significant number of students dropping out of school, contributing to increased crime rates within these communities (21). These historical disadvantages have persisted over time, exacerbating the divide between marginalized communities and the rest of society, thus perpetuating social and economic disparities.The roots of this systemic racism trace back to the country's early history. It began when enslaved Black individuals were denied basic human rights and were counted as only three-fifths of a person for the purpose of determining state representation in Congress. Even after the Emancipation Proclamation and the conclusion of the American Civil War, Black Americans still faced harsh restrictions through the imposition of Black Codes, which limited freedoms and compelled many to work for minimal or no wages (22).The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that affirmed the rights of Black people, particularly in matters related to property, labor, and contracts. However, it did not address voting rights or the ability to hold political office, which were issues later tackled by the 15th Amendment in 1870, granting Black men the right to vote. During the subsequent Jim Crow era, a range of segregationist policies were implemented, which had profound and lasting effects on the Black community. These policies entrenched poverty and denied Black Americans numerous economic and educational opportunities. Furthermore, in the 1930s, the discriminatory practice of redlining was instituted. This practice, carried out by federal housing agencies and private lenders, systematically denied financial services such as mortgages and insurance to residents in certain areas, predominantly those with a high concentration of Black residents. The impact of redlining was severe – it led to a decrease in property values in these areas, a deterioration in the quality of local schools and stores, and limited access to equitable healthcare, further exacerbating the socioeconomic challenges faced by the Black community (18).Historically, communities of color in the United States have faced significant challenges in accessing their voting rights. These challenges were often rooted in systemic racism, which played a primary role in creating disparities in voter suppression. Various policies and practices, such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and other discriminatory measures, were explicitly designed to limit the voting rights of these communities. In contemporary times, there are concerns that certain policies and practices may continue to limit ballot access for communities of color. This includes issues like strict voter ID laws, reduction of early voting periods, and the closure of polling places in predominantly minority neighborhoods. Additionally, there is the phenomenon of survey misreporting. This occurs when voter turnout among communities of color is inaccurately reported in surveys, often showing higher rates of participation than actually occur. This misreporting can have significant implications. It may lead to a misunderstanding of the true extent of voter suppression and could potentially influence the development of policies and practices that inadvertently or deliberately continue to suppress the vote among these groups (23).A system of racial segregation and discrimination, known as Jim Crow laws, was prevalent in the United States from the late 1800s to the mid-1960s. These laws, enacted by state and local governments, enforced racial segregation in public places, including schools, housing, and transportation. The Jim Crow era also extended to voting, employment, and other areas of life, systematically marginalizing African Americans. During this period, African Americans were systematically denied the right to vote through various means. These included literacy tests, poll taxes, and violent intimidation, all designed to disenfranchise them. These tactics effectively prevented African Americans from exercising their voting rights, which in turn allowed White politicians to maintain power and control over political and social institutions. The impact of these discriminatory practices contributed to the perpetuation of racial disparities and injustices that echoed into contemporary times, influencing policies and practices related to voting rights (24). Zoning and land use policiesIn their 1993 study, Massey and Denton (25) discussed how historical discrimination, ongoing inequality, and specific policies have contributed to racial segregation in housing in the United States. They highlight practices such as redlining, discriminatory lending, and exclusionary zoning as key factors. Their argument posits that 'systemic racism', rather than just individual preferences or market dynamics, plays a crucial role in creating disparities in housing access and quality for racial minorities. However, it's important to acknowledge that housing challenges are not exclusive to any single racial group. People living in poverty, irrespective of their race, often face significant difficulties related to housing. These include living in inadequate or unsafe conditions, struggling with high housing costs relative to their income, and facing the risk of homelessness. This broader perspective recognizes that while systemic racism significantly affects housing disparities, economic factors also play a critical role in housing challenges experienced by people across different communities (25).Poor communities are often situated in areas that are redlined with less stringent zoning regulation making it easier for industries to locate there. The areas are marked as high risk, the people in such communities are denied financial services such as mortgages or loans to improve their lives. Also, because of the segregation the land regulations in these communities are not enforced to protect the people and the environment from pollution. Poor communities have become the dumping sites for most industrial toxic waste, landfill sites where garbage with different toxic contaminants are sited, waste incinerators which produce harmful chemicals to the environment are also found in these communities. These pollutants contaminate the air, soil and nearby water bodies.This results in higher exposure to environmental hazards as the communities' experience air pollution by inhaling harmful gases which can lead to respiratory diseases. Their water is also polluted and by consuming the contaminated water many are at risk of suffering from waterborne diseases. The noise and chemicals from the industrialized factories set up in their locality adversely affect the people and environment. All this leads to the inhabitants of such communities being at higher risk of being diagnosed with respiratory diseases, lead and other contaminant poisoning, skin cancer, lung cancer, neurological issues, and cardiovascular diseases. Economic factorsOliver and Shapiro (26) asserted that 'systemic racism' is a primary driver of disparities in the wealth gap. They argue that the wealth gap between Black and White Americans is not simply the result of individual differences in savings or investment behavior but rather is the product of historical discrimination and inequality. They claim past policies such as redlining, discriminatory lending practices, and discriminatory employment practices contributed to the wealth gap (26).Lower-income communities often lack the means to advocate effectively for enhancements in environmental conditions, quality healthcare, access to good education, and the implementation of rigorous land use regulations (27). This disparity is particularly pronounced within minority populations, where higher levels of education are less common, and many individuals find themselves in low-paying, menial jobs, directly impacting their overall quality of life. Regrettably, this reduced standard of living does not promote saving but tends to lead to the accumulation of debt, further diminishing their overall quality of life. These financial constraints frequently hinder their ability to secure mortgages and relocate to areas with superior environmental conditions (25). In addition to these challenges, discriminatory lending policies and high interest rates often contribute to the accumulation of debt, making it even more difficult for these communities to break the cycle of financial hardship.Additionally, limited access to healthcare amplifies their vulnerability to environmental health risks, further compounding challenges (28) comprehensively explored the myriad factors contributing to wealth disparities, shedding light on a multifaceted and intricate challenge. Their research illuminated how income inequality, differences in homeownership rates, educational disparities, and variations in job opportunities all played crucial roles in shaping economic inequalities across various communities. These disparities were not confined to a single racial or ethnic group; they affected individuals from diverse backgrounds who were grappling with economic hardship. The disadvantages identified in their study extended to shared environmental challenges as well. These encompassed living in areas with poor air quality, contaminated water sources, proximity to toxic waste sites, labor market discrimination, and limited access to education and healthcare. Collectively, these adversities had a far-reaching impact, stretching across communities of all racial and ethnic backgrounds experiencing financial difficulties. It's important to underscore that despite the multifaceted nature of this issue, the literature consistently indicates that minority communities often bear a disproportionate burden (29). Their vulnerabilities, rooted in historical and ongoing systemic inequities, compound challenges, making it crucial to address these disparities comprehensively and systematically. Limited political influenceThe issue of underrepresentation of poor communities in mainstream media is a significant factor contributing to environmental justice challenges. Often, these communities are not adequately represented in the media, leading to a generalized lack of awareness and understanding of the specific adversities they face. This situation hampers their ability to effectively voice their concerns and needs, as highlighted in reference (24).Furthermore, these communities typically wield less political clout, posing a substantial obstacle in advocating for and implementing policies that safeguard their interests. A recurring theme in environmental justice discourse is the inadequate representation of minority and impoverished communities in key decision-making forums. Their interests are often sidelined in environmental policy decisions, primarily because these communities seldom have representatives in influential governing bodies. This absence of representation means that decisions affecting their lives and environment are often made without their input or best interests in mind, leading to disproportionate exposure to environmental hazards and pollution. This systemic issue underscores the need for more inclusive representation in decision-making processes to address and rectify environmental injustices. Proximity to industrial zonesBullard (5) argued that communities of color are disproportionately burdened by environmental pollution and other environmental hazards. Policies such as zoning, land use, and environmental regulation have contributed to and perpetuate disparities, asserting that 'systemic racism' is a primary driver in environmental justice (5). Poor communities may be located closer to industrial zones because of lack of employment. The leaders in the local communities encourage industries to be set up in their locality to employ inhabi