Understanding Land Use Dynamics and Environmental Impacts of Urbanization in Thimphu, Bhutan: A Satellite-Based Analysis

Abstract The ability of land surface temperature (LST) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) to examine the land surface change is regarded as important climate variables. However, no significant systematic examination of urbanization concerning environmental variables has been undertaken in the narrow valley of Thimphu, Bhutan, explicitly. Therefore, this study investigates the impact of land use and land cover (LULC) dynamics on LST, NDVI, and elevation, using Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data in Thimphu, Bhutan from 2000 to 2020. The results showed that LSTs varied substantially among different land use types, with the highest in built-up areas and the lowest in forests. There was a strong negative linear correlation between LST and NDVI in built-up areas, indicating the impact of anthropogenic activities. Moreover, elevation had a noticeable effect on both LST and NDVI exhibiting very strong opposite patterns at lower elevation. In summary, LULC dynamics have a significant influence on LST and NDVI, highlighting the importance of understanding the spatiotemporal pattern and its effects on ecological processes for effective land management and environmental conservation. Moreover, the study also demonstrated the applicability of relatively low-cost, moderate spatial resolution satellite imagery in examining the impact of urban development on the urban environment in Thimphu City.