This concluding article synthesises theoretical, empirical, and critical perspectives on how non-profit organisations generate social change. It proposes an integrated framework linking inputs, processes, structures, and outcomes, showing that NGO effectiveness emerges from the interaction of resources, governance systems, and contextual factors. NGOs mobilise diverse forms of capital—human, financial, social, and symbolic—which are channelled into processes such as service delivery, advocacy, framing, and innovation. These processes unfold within governance structures that mediate legitimacy, accountability, and adaptability. Outputs evolve into outcomes and, under specific conditions, systemic impacts that reshape policy and culture. Yet this dynamic is continually constrained by dependency, legitimacy crises, and shrinking civic space. The article argues that NGOs function as intermediaries within complex systems rather than isolated agents of change, and that both scholars and practitioners must approach their influence with analytical rigour and ethical humility.
Anna Neya Kazanskaia (Wed,) studied this question.