Replicating the North-South Academic Performance Divide in Italy at the Smallest Administrative Level

This study examines how geography and socioeconomic factors affect educational performance in Italian municipalities. Using mixed-effects modeling and structural equation modeling, we found a strong link between latitude and standardized test scores ( INVALSI scores, β = 0.72–0.89), with northern regions outperforming southern ones. This association remains significant even after accounting for income, regional clustering, and other variables, suggesting that latitude acts as a proxy for unmeasured factors like access to resources, community investment in education, or genetic differences. Income showed a robust correlation with educational outcomes (r = 0.71), but exceptions existed, such as tourist-heavy areas. A notable gap in test scores was observed between native Italians and immigrants, though immigrants’ scores were less strongly tied to latitude than those of natives. Additionally, areas with higher net migration saw declines in test scores over time.