From molecular regulation to tissue repair: hydrogels in the fight against intervertebral disc degeneration

Background Intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD) is a leading cause of low back pain and involves multiple pathological processes, including cell apoptosis, senescence, oxidative stress–inflammation imbalance, and extracellular matrix (ECM) metabolic disorders. Current treatments such as pharmacotherapy, physical therapy, and surgery primarily relieve symptoms but fail to reverse the degenerative process and often carry the risk of complications.