Non-affirmative theory as an analytical lens for the analysis of European citizenship education policy

This article explores the potential of the non-affirmative theory of education (NAT) for analysing European citizenship education (CE) policy. The starting point is the so-called pedagogical paradox, which denotes an enduring tension within educational theory between the assumption that the individual must be educated to become free and the understanding of education as a process of free self-formation. According to NAT, the paradox may be dealt with by seeing education as a ‘summoning to self-activity’ whereby students are taught in ways that recognise their individuality and right to form themselves in a reflexive engagement with their environment. The article applies this conceptual apparatus in a critical analysis of the Council of Europe’s Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC), which seeks to standardise learning outcomes for CE across Europe. The analysis shows that an affirmative logic permeates the RFCDC, as national governments, teachers and students are expected to recognise the developed competence model as a valid description of what it means to be a democratic citizen. The article concludes that NAT has the potential to enrich current debates on the direction of European CE policy at a time when liberal democracy appears to be under increasing pressure.