Continued domain-specific pre-training of protein language models for pMHC-I binding prediction

Predicting peptide--major histocompatibility complex I (pMHC-I) binding affinity remains challenging due to extreme allelic diversity (~30,000 HLA alleles), severe data scarcity for most alleles, and noisy experimental measurements. Current methods particularly struggle with underrepresented alleles and quantitative binding prediction. We test whether domain-specific continued pre-training of protein language models is beneficial for their application to pMHC-I binding affinity prediction. Starting from ESM Cambrian (300M parameters), we perform masked-language modeling (MLM)-based continued pre-training on HLA-associated peptides (epitopes), testing two input formats: epitope sequences alone versus epitopes concatenated with HLA heavy chain sequences. We then fine-tune for functional IC₅₀ binding affinity prediction using only high-quality quantitative data, avoiding mass spectrometry biases that are inherited by existing methods.