Antidiabetic potential of Sapindus trifoliatus fruit ethanolic extract: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry profiling, molecular docking, and in vitro/in vivo evaluation

Diabetes mellitus causes vascular, renal, and ocular complications. In this study, we evaluated an ethanolic extract of Sapindus trifoliatus fruit using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) profiling, molecular docking, and in vitro and in vivo assays. GC-MS analysis revealed key bioactive phytochemicals, and docking analysis demonstrated strong AKR1C3 binding. Acute toxicity testing confirmed safety at doses up to 5000 mg/kg. In alloxan-induced diabetic mice, extract treatment dose dependently lowered fasting blood glucose and HbA1c levels, restored pancreatic, hepatic, and cardiac histology, and mitigated ocular, renal, and cardiac damage. In in vitro , the extract inhibited α-amylase and α-glucosidase, supporting its antihyperglycemic activity. Compared to previous studies, S. trifoliatus extract showed enhanced efficacy, likely due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, underscoring its potential as a plant-based antidiabetic therapy.