Bidirectional and longitudinal associations among teacher–student relationships, peer relationships, and learning engagement in Chinese primary school students: a cross-lagged panel model

Introduction In this study we aimed to investigate the longitudinal relationships among peer relationships, teacher–student relationships, and learning engagement in Chinese primary school students. Methods This longitudinal study tracked 460 third-grade primary school students (mean age at T1 = 9.43 ± 0.68 years, 210 boys) through three waves of data collection (T1: June 2022, T2: January 2023, T3: October 2023) to assess their peer relationships, teacher–student relationships, and learning engagement. Results The results revealed a persistent bidirectional relationship between peer relationships and learning engagement from grades 3 to 5. In contrast, the bidirectional relationship with teacher–student relationships was present only in grades 3 to 4 and disappeared by grade 5. Discussion These results support the theory of developmental systems, suggesting that teacher-focused interventions in middle primary years and peer-mediated approaches in upper grades may optimize developmental outcomes.