Microglia across evolution: from conserved origins to functional divergence

Microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system, exhibit conserved developmental origins and core molecular signatures across vertebrate species, highlighting their crucial importance in the central nervous system. While homeostatic microglia maintain similar functions during phylogeny—such as immune surveillance, debris clearance, and synaptic pruning—their morphology, gene expression, and responses to stimuli remarkably vary by species. These differences reflect evolutionary divergence shaped by factors such as lifespan, regenerative potential, and immune architecture. This review integrates current findings from basic vertebrates such as zebrafish, rodents, and nonhuman primates with those from humans to highlight conserved and divergent aspects of microglial biology throughout evolution. Integrating these evolutionary differences is crucial for translating mechanistic insights across model organisms and advancing microglia-targeted therapies for neurological disorders.