Remote Sensing for Quantifying Greenhouse Gas Emissions at Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage Facilities: A Review

Carbon capture, utilisation and storage technologies are increasingly recognised as critical components of global climate mitigation strategies. However, the effective monitoring and verification of greenhouse gas emission reductions from carbon capture, utilisation and storage facilities remain significant challenges. This review synthesises current monitoring methods, including in situ sensing, drone-based observations and satellite remote sensing, and critically evaluates their strengths, limitations and applicability to various carbon capture, utilisation and storage contexts. We analyse the regulatory frameworks that govern monitoring practices across jurisdictions, identify methodological gaps and assess the performance of existing technologies with respect to detection thresholds, the integration of multiple data sources and the requirements for long-term verification. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of data assimilation and inversion modelling in interpreting measurements and quantifying emissions. Based on this synthesis, we recommend a more harmonised, concentration-based approach to monitoring that combines diverse observation platforms to enhance the accuracy, transparency and cost-effectiveness of verification efforts. This review aims to support the development of best practices for environmental monitoring and assessment in the context of carbon capture, utilisation and storage deployment.