Trees, Deadwood and Tree-Related Microhabitats Explain Patterns of Alpha and Beta Saproxylic Beetle Diversity in Silver Fir-Beech Forests in Central Italy

Forest structure, including trees, deadwood and tree-related microhabitats, is a key determinant of forest biodiversity. Their relative contribution in shaping local (alpha) biodiversity and its variation (beta) between sites remains unclear. We assessed how forest characteristics shape alpha and beta diversity of beetle communities in mixed silver fir–beech forests within the Vallombrosa Nature Reserve (Tuscany, Italy). We sampled 47 circular plots recording single-tree attributes, deadwood volume and decay stage, and the occurrence of tree-related microhabitats. Beetle assemblages were sur-veyed using window flight traps, yielding over 11,000 individuals belonging to 187 species, 20% of those known from central-southern Italian forests, 58% of which were listed in the Italian Red List of Saproxylic Beetles and 10% of which were threatened. Statistical models (GLMs and GDMs) revealed that alpha diversity was driven by fi-ne-scale features, including tree species composition, microhabitats (cavities, bark, ep-iphytes) and deadwood diversity. In contrast, beta diversity was shaped by stand structure and inter-stand heterogeneity. Our results highlight the need for conserva-tion strategies that simultaneously maintain tree-level heterogeneity and secure varia-tion across the landscape. Management should therefore combine retention of micro-habitats and diverse deadwood substrates with promotion of structurally diverse, mixed stands to sustain beetle diversity at multiple spatial scales.