Forecasting Rainfall IDF Curves Using Ground Data and Downscaled Climate Projections to Enhance Flood Management in Punjab, Pakistan

Urban flooding poses an escalating threat to riverine cities in Southern Asia’s tropical regions, primarily driven by rapid urban expansion. This study develops future projections of Intensity–Duration–Frequency (IDF) curves for major urban centers in Punjab, Pakistan, utilizing downscaled satellite-derived precipitation data. Baseline IDF curves were established using historical rainfall records from multiple meteorological stations. Among eight General Circulation Models (GCMs) assessed, EC-Earth3-Veg-LR demonstrated the highest skill in capturing extreme rainfall patterns relevant to the region. Future precipitation projections from this model were downscaled using the Equidistant Quantile Matching (EQM) technique and applied to generate IDF curves under two CMIP6 scenarios: SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5. The results reveal a substantial increase in extreme rainfall intensities, particularly under the SSP5-8.5 scenario, with projected 100-year return period rainfall intensities rising by approximately 30–55% across key cities. The downscaled projections reveal more pronounced variations than the raw GCM outputs, emphasizing the importance of high-resolution climate data for accurate regional hydrological risk evaluation and effective urban flood resilience planning.