Dynamics of gas–liquid annular flow: from wall-film instability to fragmentation

We highlight the complete transition from liquid-wall-film instability of an annular gas–liquid flow inside a nozzle to spray formation at the trailing edge, aiming to identify two distinct flow regimes of ripple waves and disturbance waves and to clarify their distinct fragmentation mechanisms. Experiments conducted under strictly controlled boundary conditions support our theoretical analysis, revealing that the onset of disturbance waves coincides with the liquid-film Weber number ( We ) of unity, marking a significant change in following fragmentation dynamics. For We< 0.5 , the liquid wall film forms three-dimensional ripple waves driven by the superposition of Kelvin–Helmholtz and Rayleigh–Taylor (RT) instabilities, with no disturbance waves present. At the trailing edge, the liquid film temporarily accumulates, extends into isolated ligaments along the axial direction via RT instability, and subsequently fragments into droplets through Plateau–Rayleigh instability, displaying a weak coupling between ripple wave dynamics and fragmentation. In contrast, for We> 0.5 , disturbance waves with long wavelengths and large amplitudes become prominent, superimposed on the base ripple waves. As these disturbance waves reach the trailing edge, they are spontaneously ejected as liquid sheets at the same frequency, forming transverse rims through RT instability and rapidly disintegrating into fine droplets. This regime demonstrates a direct coupling between disturbance-wave dynamics and fragmentation.