Background: Recurrent and metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (R/M HNSCC) after immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) progression represents a major clinical challenge. Between 60 and 80% of patients develop resistance, and historical salvage regimens like cytotoxic chemotherapy or chemotherapy plus cetuximab rarely extend median overall survival (mOS) beyond one year. Scope of Review: This review examines systemic therapies evaluated specifically in the post-ICI setting, emphasizing agents advancing to Phase II and III trials. Classes include chemotherapy combinations, ICI-based approaches, small-molecule targeted combinations, bispecific antibodies, antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), and next-generation vaccines. Results: Promising signals have emerged across multiple therapeutic modalities. Targeted combination strategies have demonstrated encouraging response rates and survival outcomes in difficult-to-treat, PD-1-resistant disease. Antibody-based platforms, including antibody-drug conjugates and bispecific antibodies, continue to show consistent clinical activity across diverse patient populations, offering disease control and prolonged survival. Novel immunotherapies and therapeutic vaccines are also generating durable responses, particularly in biologically defined subgroups, highlighting the potential of immune-based precision treatments in R/M HNSCC. Conclusions: Comparative analysis highlights distinct advantages and limitations: chemotherapy ensures rapid shrinkage but poor durability; biomarker-driven small molecules achieve strong survival gains in narrow niches; ADCs and bispecifics offer balanced efficacy in unselected patients; and vaccine platforms deliver durable benefit in defined subsets. Together, these data signal a paradigm shift toward biomarker-guided, mechanism-driven strategies as the path to closing the post-ICI therapeutic gap in R/M HNSCC.
Ffion Abraham (2025) studied this question.