Pathogen-induced mitochondrial dysfunction: mechanistic insights, immune crosstalk, and therapeutic opportunities

Mitochondria have emerged as multifunctional organelles central to cellular metabolism, innate immunity, and cell fate determination. Increasing evidence demonstrates that pathogens-including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites-target mitochondria to modulate host immune responses and metabolic reprogramming. Disruption of mitochondrial dynamics, excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) release, and altered mitophagy represent key hallmarks of pathogen-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. These processes not only compromise cellular bioenergetics but also influence immune signaling cascades, such as cGAS-STING and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways, thereby shaping infection outcomes. This review synthesizes the latest findings on how distinct pathogen classes orchestrate mitochondrial damage and explores their implications for infection biology and immune regulation. Furthermore, we highlight emerging mitochondria-targeted therapeutic strategies and future research directions aimed at mitigating infection-induced mitochondrial pathology.