Comprehensive review of the red palm weevil: Invasion biology, distribution and management strategies

The red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier)) is one of the most destructive pests of palm trees worldwide, with severe ecological and economic impacts. This review synthesizes current knowledge on its invasion history, global distribution, host range, biology and damage mechanisms, while assessing advances in detection, monitoring and integrated pest management (IPM). Since its first record in India in 1790, human-mediated trade of infested palms has facilitated its spread across Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe, with Oman reporting infestations since 1993. Temperature, humidity and other environmental factors strongly influence its lifecycle and dispersal, often enabling hidden infestations that remain undetected until irreversible damage occurs. Conventional management approaches primarily insecticides face limitations due to resistance, environmental risks and high costs. Recent advances in eco-friendly biological agents, pheromone trapping, RNA interference, remote sensing and artificial intelligence (AI) offer promising pathways to strengthen IPM frameworks. Case studies in the Gulf highlight both successes and persistent challenges, particularly in farmer participation, surveillance systems and cost-effective implementation. Future directions should prioritize reliable early-detection technologies, predictive modeling of pest distribution under climate change, enhanced quarantine measures and the integration of AI- and Internet of Things (IoT)-based monitoring tools. A coordinated regional strategy, supported by sustainable policies and farmer engagement, is critical to reducing the global threat of red palm weevil (RPW).