Quantifying embodied greenhouse gas emissions in food consumption: a multi-spatial scale analysis using Taiwan as a case study

Purpose Achieving the ambitious net-zero emissions targets outlined in the Paris Agreement is unlikely without substantial and innovative reforms within the food sector. Identifying key emission sources is crucial for designing targeted interventions that can efficiently and effectively reduce emissions within the food system. This case study aims to rigorously analyze food-related emissions across three dimensions: types of food, emission phases and spatial scales. The findings from this analysis can serve as a valuable reference for policymakers in developing more effective and tailored mitigation strategies to address the unique challenges within the food sector. Design/methodology/approach This study aims to develop an integrated approach for estimating the embodied greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from food consumption across multiple spatial scales. The novelty of our quantitative approach manifests in two distinct aspects. First, it integrates a wide array of datasets, including food balance sheets, international trade statistics that map origin-destination patterns, local agricultural production data and microeconomic census data that reflect consumption differences at more granular spatial levels, such as cities or counties. Second, our approach adopts a life-cycle perspective to calculate emissions from both production and international transportation, using specific emission factors and shipping distances tailored to different food types. This methodology offers a deeper understanding of the distribution of GHG emissions across different food categories, emission stages and spatial scales. Findings Our findings show that international transportation contributes only a small share to the embodied emissions from food consumption, whereas food production remains the dominant source. Among food categories, imported side dishes contribute the largest share – over one-third of total emissions – followed by domestic staple foods and side dishes. Urban areas exhibit higher total emissions due to population density; however, income levels and consumption preferences also shape emission rankings. For example, Taipei City – despite having fewer households – records the highest total emissions. While urban areas have higher aggregates, their emissions per dollar of food consumption are relatively moderate. In contrast, several rural counties exhibit elevated emission intensities, primarily due to rice-based diets. Research limitations/implications The main limitation of this study is the absence of origin-specific emission factors (domestic vs imported). While such factors would improve accuracy, they are not yet available for Taiwan at the necessary level of detail. Accordingly, developing Taiwan-specific life-cycle emission factors is a priority for future work. Practical implications City GHG reporting should adopt dual inventories – territorial and consumption-based – with a dedicated food module detailing totals and intensities per capita and by category mix. Such inclusive statistics provide a clearer picture of the environmental impacts of urban activities and support coordinated GHG management strategies across spatial scales, empowering urban areas to take a leading role in reducing overall emissions. In sum, by integrating cleaner production, smarter procurement and logistics, behavior-aware demand policies and consumption-based urban governance, cities can act on the true drivers of the food footprint and accelerate credible, equitable pathways to net zero. Originality/value The contribution of this study lies in its detailed analysis of the embodied greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from food consumption across multiple spatial scales. By integrating diverse datasets and employing a life-cycle perspective, the study provides a comprehensive understanding of the distribution of emissions by food type, emission phases and spatial scales. This nuanced approach highlights the significant role of food production as the primary source of emissions and identifies foreign side dishes as the leading contributor. The study also uncovers the influence of population density, income levels and consumption preferences on urban and rural emission patterns. These insights offer valuable guidance for policymakers, enabling them to design targeted and effective strategies for reducing emissions within the food sector, ultimately contributing to the broader goal of achieving net-zero emissions.