Pneumatic Artificial Muscles (PAMs) are soft actuators that mimic the contractile behavior of biological muscles through fluid-driven deformation. Originating from McKibben’s 1950s braided design, PAMs have evolved into a diverse class of actuators, offering high power-to-weight ratios, compliance, and safe human interaction, with applications spanning rehabilitation, assistive robotics, aerospace, and adaptive structures. This review surveys recent developments in actuation mechanisms and applications of PAMs. Traditional designs, including braided, pleated, netted, and embedded types, remain widely used but face challenges such as hysteresis, limited contraction, and nonlinear control. To address these limitations, researchers have introduced non-traditional mechanisms such as vacuum-powered, inverse, foldable, origami-based, reconfigurable, and hybrid PAMs. These innovations improve the contraction range, efficiency, control precision, and integration into compact or untethered systems. This review also highlights applications beyond conventional biomechanics and automation, including embodied computation, deployable aerospace systems, and adaptive architecture. Collectively, these advances demonstrate PAMs’ expanding role as versatile soft actuators. Ongoing research is expected to refine material durability, control strategies, and multifunctionality, enabling the next generation of wearable devices, soft robots, and energy-efficient adaptive systems.
Zhagiparova et al. (Mon,) studied this question.