A highly realistic 3D-printed deep caries model tooth with hardness-stratified layers for pre-clinical training in deep caries management

We developed a novel multilayered and hardness-stratified 3D-printed tooth for deep caries treatment. This model achieved high realism (mean Likert 3.73-4.79 across domains; Cronbach's alpha = 0.87) and was considered promising for pre-clinical cariology training. Future trials will evaluate its impact on student learning outcomes.