The dynamics of Islamophobia and Islamism: A cross-national inquiry into four European societies

This article explores the connections between systemic Islamophobia, exclusion and Islamist attitudes among young Muslims in four EU countries, utilising mixed-methods data, including 222 survey responses and 114 interviews. Analysis indicates a U-shaped correlation between Islamophobia and Islamism: moderate levels of perceived Islamophobia correlate with lower Islamist tendencies; moderate levels are associated with reduced tendencies; excessive discrimination promotes exclusionary ideas. Multilevel/non-linear regression indicates that perceived Islamophobia significantly affects Islamist attitudes, with education as a moderating factor. Higher education diminishes the connection between discrimination and extremism; however, it paradoxically correlates with a rise in Islamist sentiment due to enhanced understanding of systemic imbalances. The models of national integration and secularism account for over one-third of the variance in intergroup attitudes. Qualitative findings reveal segregation, gender-based discrimination and generational divides influencing reactive identity. A surprising positive correlation between trust in democracy and radicalisation indicates dissatisfaction arising from unmet institutional commitments.