Abstract This study aims to explore the effect of using 3D Augmented Reality (AR) on cognitive load, collaboration tendency, and enjoyment in engineering education. A quasi-experimental design was conducted involving 111 students, divided into three groups: a control group (conventional), an experimental group with hints (AR + scaffolding), and an experimental group without hints (AR only). Data were collected through pretest-posttest scores and post-intervention questionnaires measuring Cognitive Load (CL), Collaboration Tendency (CT), and Enjoyment (EJ). Data analysis included normality tests (Shapiro–Wilk and Kolmogorov–Smirnov), Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test, Kruskal–Wallis test, One-Way ANOVA, and Multiple Linear Regression. Results showed that all groups experienced learning improvement, with the highest gains in the AR with hints group. Effect size analysis using Cohen’s d indicated a large impact of AR with hints ( d = 1.10) and moderate impact of AR without hints ( d = 0.63) compared to the control group. Regression analysis revealed that EJ ( p = 0.012) and CT ( p = 0.034) significantly predicted learning performance, while CL had a negative effect ( p = 0.035). Two-Way ANOVA showed no significant gender effect on CL or CT, but found a significant interaction between gender and group on EJ ( p = 0.028), suggesting gender-based differences in emotional engagement with AR. Female students reported higher EJ without hints, while male students preferred guided AR learning. These findings highlight that 3D AR enhances learning outcomes not only cognitively but also socially and emotionally. The integration of scaffolding into AR environments increases effectiveness by reducing cognitive overload and fostering collaboration. Designing adaptive, gender-responsive AR learning environments can further optimize educational impact in technical disciplines.
Rahmawati et al. (Thu,) studied this question.