Temporal and spatial dynamics of drinking water quality in Injibara Town, Ethiopia

Safe drinking water remains a critical challenge in Ethiopian towns due to rapid urbanization, poor sanitation, and limited treatment. In Injibara Town, this study assessed the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water across 18 sites, including boreholes, springs, reservoirs, and distribution points, using 268 triplicate samples collected from March to August 2024. Analyses followed the WHO and Ethiopian standards, with spatial–temporal variations evaluated via one-way ANOVA and Pearson correlation. The results were compared with the WHO and Ethiopian standards, and residual chlorine was monitored at 2-h intervals (four times per sampling day) during monthly sampling events conducted over three consecutive months in both dry and wet seasons. Most parameters met standards; however, iron in boreholes, TDS in BH2, and turbidity in the spring (wet season) exceeded permissible limits. Total coliforms occurred in all sources, while chlorine levels were excessive in reservoirs (up to 8.7 mg/L) but low in distribution, revealing rapid decay and heightened contamination risk. Water quality declined from source to distribution due to weak chlorination, poor sanitation, and aging infrastructure. Strengthening chlorination, protecting springs, improving drainage and waste management, and regular monitoring are essential to ensure safe and sustainable drinking water for the community.