Modelling of tropical cyclones and their environment

Numerical modelling of tropical cyclones has come a long way from the early attempts by Kasahara (1961), Syono (1962), and Ogura (1964). Although these axisymmetric (two-dimensional) models did not adequately portray the growth of the tropical cyclone, they did provide investigators with encouragement and insight to develop more realistic models. Today fully three-dimensional models on fine meshes that move along with the storm are being used in research and operationally to improve our understanding and prediction of tropical cyclones. This paper summarises research and operational hurricane models and physical processes that must be understood to improve these models.