Various musculoskeletal humanoids have been developed so far, and numerous studies on control mechanisms have been conducted to leverage the advantages of their biomimetic bodies. However, there has not been sufficient and unified discussion on the diverse properties inherent in these musculoskeletal structures, nor on how to manage and utilize them. Therefore, this study categorizes and analyzes the characteristics of muscles, as well as their management and utilization methods, based on the various research conducted on the musculoskeletal humanoids we have developed, Kengoro and Musashi. We classify the features of the musculoskeletal structure into five properties: redundancy, independency, anisotropy, variable moment arm, and nonlinear elasticity. We then organize the diverse advantages and disadvantages of musculoskeletal humanoids that arise from the combination of these properties. In particular, we discuss body schema learning and reflex control, along with muscle grouping and body schema adaptation. Also, we describe the implementation of movements through an integrated system and discuss future challenges and prospects.
Kawaharazuka et al. (2026) studied this question.