Diverse Bacterial Anti-Phage Strategies: From the Laboratory to the Clinic

Refractory infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria have emerged as a substantial threat to public health, prompting renewed interest in phage therapy. Bacteria and phages are ubiquitous in diverse environments, engaging in continuous interaction and co-evolution. In response to phage infection, bacteria have developed an array of defense mechanisms. Current studies on bacteria–phage interactions predominantly focus on laboratory settings using artificial media, whereas the final goal of phage therapy—to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria—lies in its clinical application. This review describes bacterial defense strategies against phage infection in the context of laboratory-based artificial media, animal experiments and clinical cases, aiming to deepen the understanding of bacteria–phage interactions and promote the advancement of effective phage therapy for clinical applications.