Assessing synergistic impacts of climate change and anthropogenic stressors on freshwater ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems are among the most productive yet threatened components of the biosphere, providing vital ecological, economic, and social services. However, their sustainability is increasingly undermined by the synergistic effects of climate change, eutrophication, pollution, habitat degradation, over-exploitation and invasive species. These stressors interact across temporal and spatial scales, producing complex and often non-linear responses that challenge traditional management frameworks. Despite substantial progress in research and policy, fragmented approaches continue to hinder effective mitigation and restoration efforts. To tackle these challenges, we need a paradigm shift towards holistic and integrated management. This review synthesizes recent advances in understanding how multiple stressors jointly influence freshwater structure and function, with particular emphasis on sediment–nutrient interactions, trophic transitions, and climate-induced feedbacks. It also examines emerging management approaches, including ecosystem-based management (EBM), nature-based solutions (NBS), and adaptive governance frameworks that integrate socio-ecological resilience. Future strategies should prioritize cross-disciplinary collaboration, long-term monitoring, and the development of predictive models capable of quantifying non-additive stressor interactions. Without decisive action, accelerating climate impacts and legacy nutrient loads may push many freshwater systems beyond ecological thresholds, leading to irreversible biodiversity loss and degraded ecosystem services essential for human well-being.