Screening and in silico evaluation of candidate late-stage antigens for incorporation into multi-stage and post-exposure vaccines against tuberculosis

A quarter of the world's population harbours latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis, yet current vaccines, including BCG, offer limited protection against latency or reactivation. Multi-stage or post-exposure vaccines targeting antigens expressed during these phases may mitigate TB burden. This review screens late-stage Mtb antigens, evaluating their antigenicity, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy, summarizes in silico analyses, and discusses challenges and examples of vaccine design, highlighting candidates for incorporation into next-generation TB vaccines.