Multi-omics analysis of functional component networks in human, porcine, and ruminant milk: Insights for precise design of infant formula and milk replacers based on bovine milk

This integrated multi-omics study (metabolomics, lipidomics, proteomics) compared the compositions of bovine, caprine, ovine, porcine, and human milk. Human milk is defined by a unique microenvironment where complex human milk oligosaccharides and immune regulating small molecules act together. Components like Lnnt and Lnfp iii form interactive networks, which help modulate both gut microbiota and the immune system. Porcine milk contributes to neural development and immune function. It is rich in polar phospholipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid, important for neural structure and function. Porcine milk also contains specifically high levels of immunoglobulins, including IgM and IgG. In contrast, ruminant milks like bovine and caprine milk show a distinct composition, with high levels of certain functional proteins and active metabolites, such as xanthine dehydrogenase, osteopontin, and allantoin. These findings provide new insights for the precise development of better bovine milk based infant formula and animal milk replacers. • Multi-omics analysis shows each milk contains unique, highly abundant nutrients. • Human and porcine milk contain more nutrients that promote cognitive function. • Porcine milk has the highest abundance of lactotransferrin, IgM, and IgG. • Ruminant milks have a similar phospholipid profile and are monoglyceride-rich.