Three-Dimensional Printing of the Epineurium for Peripheral Nerve Repair: A Comprehensive Review of Novel Scaffolds for Nerve Conduits

Nerve conduits are used to bridge peripheral nerve defects caused by trauma, iatrogenic injury, or oncologic disruption. Three-dimensional biomimetic scaffolds for peripheral nerve regeneration have advanced significantly in recent years, driven by improvements in printing technology and neuronal seeding techniques. We report on published designs for conduits that can recreate the epineurium, a critical yet challenging-to-manufacture feature of nerve tissue that surgeons appreciate for facilitating appropriate attachment.