Pastoral resilience under threat: impacts of climate change, invasive plant species, and traditional ecological knowledge erosion in the Kashmir Himalayas

Pastoralism is central to mountain livelihoods in the Kashmir Himalayas, historically sustained through transhumant mobility and a rich body of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). This system is now threatened by three interacting pressures: climate change, the upward spread of invasive plant species, and the erosion of TEK. Rising temperatures, altered precipitation, and shifting snowmelt are reshaping pasture phenology, shortening migration windows and destabilising fodder security. Meanwhile, invasive species once limited to lower elevations are expanding into higher rangelands, displacing palatable forage and reducing carrying capacity. These ecological stresses intersect with socio-economic change, including youth outmigration and weakening customary institutions, which diminish the transmission and practice of TEK. Collectively, these dynamics are transforming historically resilient pastoral systems into increasingly vulnerable socio-ecological assemblages. This review synthesises recent evidence on climate variability, invasive plant expansion and TEK erosion and calls for climate-responsive rangeland governance that revitalises TEK, supports mobility-based adaptation and protects high-altitude biodiversity.