A classification of mode-1 internal solitary waves in a three-layer fluid

We explore the bifurcation structure of mode-1 solitary waves in a three-layer fluid confined between two rigid boundaries. A recent study Lamb (2023 J. Fluid Mech. , vol. 962 , A17) proposed a method to predict the coexistence of solitary waves with opposite polarity in a continuously stratified fluid with a double pycnocline by examining the conjugate states for the Euler equations. We extend this line of inquiry to a piecewise-constant three-layer stratification, taking advantage of the fact that the conjugate states for the Euler equations are exactly preserved by the strongly nonlinear model that we will refer to as the three-layer Miyata-Maltseva-Choi-Camassa (MMCC3) equations. In this reduced setting, solitary waves are governed by a Hamiltonian system with two degrees of freedom, whose critical points are used to explain the bifurcation structure. Through this analysis, we also discover families of solutions that have not been previously reported for a three-fluid system. Using the shared conjugate state structure between the MMCC3 model and the full Euler equations, we propose criteria for distinguishing the full range of solution behaviours. This alignment between the reduced and full models provides strong evidence that partitioning the parameter space into regions associated with distinct solution types is valid within both theories. This classification is further substantiated by numerical solutions to both models, which show excellent agreement.