There are four main chapters in the book plus an introduction and epilogue: ‘Herds and Flocks’, ‘Bodies’, ‘Behavior’ and ‘Stockpersons’. Grumett starts his book by pointing out that nomadic biblical societies were agricultural, so it is unsurprising that animals should feature heavily in the texts. As life became more settled, however, animals were so familiar that they became invisible, though their absence from texts does not mean that they were not there, for example, at wells. Farming methods and animal husbandry are so different today that we cannot make assumptions about which is/was better. On the one hand, animals in economically developed countries are likely to have enough food and water and be protected from disease, but on the other, nonmechanised animal husbandry keeps the attention on the animals and their needs rather than viewing them as products. The first chapter opens by explaining that farm animals have strong group identities, which are stronger than maternal or kin bonds. The Bible recognises this group identity, and farm animals are usually presented in herds and flocks. When they are portrayed individually, they are often in distressing situations, e.g., Nathan's parable of the man with a single ewe lamb (2 Sam 12:1-4). Grumett notes that, ‘In Christian theology and church tradition, the group identity of humans is similarly fundamental’ (7). When considering sheep, Grumett cites research that shows that sheep follow a lead animal; there is a hierarchy according to age, reproductive success is not inherited, flocks are hospitable to newcomers and content to share space with other flocks while recognising their own group, and they observe and communicate well, often in relation to danger. There is a strong connection between dam and lamb until after the weaning period is over at about six months. Rams are often away from the flock, and their dominance is based more on physical characteristics. The behaviour of cattle is similar to that of sheep, including that herd solidarity is due to females. Nevertheless, there are differences: the bond between a cow and her calf is enduring, and cattle form more closed groups, though interestingly, this does not lead to genetic problems because of how the genomes are constructed. One study showed that hierarchy in cattle is based on assertiveness, age and gender. Grumett looks briefly at chickens, which are the most popular farm animal today but not definitively mentioned in the Old Testament, and pigs, which are not given much treatment in the Old Testament because of being viewed as unclean. Unsurprisingly, therefore, human behaviour is not likened to that of pigs, despite pigs having a grouping that more closely resembles human nuclear families than do flocks. When it comes to sexuality, ruminants behave more normally if males are among the group even if they have been castrated, ‘most farmed species are promiscuous’ (20) other than greylag geese, and there is same-sex mating behaviour in farm animals including greylag geese. Herd births are often coordinated, even when a cow has mated after the seasonal peak, leading to a shorter gestation period by several days. In birds, embryos tap on their shells with their egg tooth to alert neighbours of their imminent birth. Grumett looks at nesting and maternal care and how they are handled in the Bible, e.g., a sacrificial animal must remain a week with its mother (Lev 22:28) and a kid must not be boiled in its mother's milk (Ex 23:19b). As with other animal behaviour, maternal care is sometimes used metaphorically, for example, God gathering Israel like chicks under her wings (2 Esd 1:30; Matt 23:37; Luke 13:34). It is clear from the above that the book is full of interesting information about farm animals, and the author has consulted a wide range of research, which he presents clearly. Chapters 2 and 3 follow suit. The second chapter looks at how animals use their bodies. The most obvious is for reproduction, but other behaviours include rooting, pecking, removing sources of irritation, heating, cooling, protecting other body parts, showing social status, defence and attack. Removing body parts is prohibited in the Bible as demonstrated by the fact that sacrificial animals were to be without blemish. Backed by studies, Grumett questions the benefits of castrating animals, i.e., changing the animal's diet improves meat flavour in the same way as castration. He makes the case for not docking sheep's tails, which have practical uses but are also used to express mood or attract a mate. Horns help determine social rank and are used in cooling. Grumett details some of the mutilation pigs and chickens experience, despite needing the body parts that are clipped, docked, trimmed or removed. Jacob is a good biblical herdsman, who understood breeding and keeping ‘high quality’ (46) males, but there are also biblical examples of selective breeding that have negative impact, for example, the oversized fat tail that has been bred into the Awassi sheep for human consumption (1 Sam 9.24). Grumett ends the chapter with a short excursus of lifespans of the animals in biblical times, in modern times and in the wild. The third chapter looks at behaviour and begins by noting that farm animals are developed at birth when they show a degree of independence, and at a very early age develop characteristic behaviours. They wander considerable distances to find suitable nesting areas and for other reasons. Dustbathing is essential for chickens. Animals graze for food but also for welfare purposes, so feed supplements do not replace the need to graze. Grumett discusses the fascinating research behind the navigational skills in birds and fish. The Bible talks about animals praising God, and Grumett proposes that animal play is praise: ‘the free exercise of created capacities, including vocalization, not for productive purposes but as a celebration of life’ (66). The fourth chapter looks at stockpersons—the resident farmer or another person who has a duty to care for the animals. A strong human–animal bond, which develops resulting from a stockperson's welfare of animals, is beneficial to both parties; the reverse is also true: ‘Rather than viewing humans and farm animals as two distinct but overlapping communities, it may be preferable to regard them as a single community’ (72-73). Stockpersons may sometimes imitate the behaviour of lead animals in the herd to exercise dominance, and animals sometimes treat stockpersons as they would other animals. Stockpersons may sometimes have poor working conditions and low morale, but Grumett suggests that seeing their work as a (God-given) vocation would increase their perceived value. He ends by outlining the inherent problems in intensive farming. In his epilogue, Grumett challenges consumers who purchase animal products to check how the animals have been reared and suggests that biblical principles be applied to animal welfare science to protect farm animals. Some of what Grumett says has been said before, e.g., human ruling over animals should be akin to God's dominion, or some of the issues involved with animal welfare, but his highly informative book, which is written discursively and in an accessible style, has much that would be new to most people, including those in the field of animals studies. It is, in my judgement, weaker on the biblical side and not because the focus of the book is on animal behaviour. There are small issues, such as Grumett does not make clear that a flock in the Old Testament can be sheep or goats. More concerning are his interpretative moves, though these may be more a question of nuance. For instance, having said that the animals in the creation account are assigned habitats that are all outdoors, he continues, ‘The biblical norm of outdoor rearing …’ (54). Another example: in Ps 68:27, the tribe of Benjamin, which stems from the youngest of Jacob's children, leads the procession, which ‘suggests that truly holy rule … entails an inversion of the normal order of precedence and status’ (71). A final instance is when Grumett cites as an example of species blurring in the Bible, the occasion when Rebecca put goatskins on Jacob's hands, so that the human becomes an animal. Isaac, however, does not mistake Jacob for a goat, but his other son. I would recommend the book to a wide audience. Grumett's writing is balanced, and his language is neither emotive nor inflammatory. His work reads as if he has modelled in his writing the Christian integrity he suggests should be brought to farm animal welfare.
Julie Woods (Tue,) studied this question.
Synapse has enriched 5 closely related papers on similar clinical questions. Consider them for comparative context: