Digital inclusion and ecosystem-based incentives as predictors of smallholder readiness for sustainability-oriented change in Indonesian oil palm landscapes

Abstract Smallholder-dominated oil palm landscapes are central to sustainability transitions because they shape land-use decisions, environmental quality, and the feasibility of deforestation-free supply chains. This study examines how independent smallholder farmers perceive four instruments for improving environmental quality management in oil palm regions—digital transformation, green-economy practices, blue-economy utilisation of biomass and residues, and ecosystem-based incentives—and how these perceptions relate to their readiness for behavioural change. Using a cross-sectional survey of 250 independent smallholders in East Kalimantan and Mamuju (West Sulawesi), we summarise farmers’ perceptions and assess associations between the four instruments and readiness for change. The findings indicate generally supportive perceptions of green–blue practices and incentive mechanisms, while perceptions of digital transformation are positive but comparatively weaker. These results suggest that combining context-appropriate digital capacity building with credible incentive design can strengthen early-stage adoption pathways for sustainability-oriented practices in smallholder oil palm landscapes.