Assessment of fluoride concentrations, water quality status, source identification, and non-carcinogenic health risks in groundwater from Saboba, Northern Ghana

Fluoride occurrence in borehole water poses health implications to thousands worldwide, emphasizing the need to identify its source and develop effective mitigation solutions. This study aimed to assess fluoride concentrations, physicochemical characteristics and water quality indices (WQI) of borehole water in Saboba district, Northern Ghana, evaluating noncarcinogenic risks to children and adults, and identifying sources of fluoride enrichment using Piper diagrams and multivariate statistical approaches. Thirty groundwater samples were collected from the Saboba district and assessed for their fluoride concentrations and their physicochemical compositions through standard analytical methods. The findings indicated that all measured physicochemical parameters were within guideline limits for safe drinking water. Geogenic dissolution and mineralization are the main drivers of fluoride contamination in the study area, according to multivariate analysis and Piper diagrams. All borehole water samples had WQI scores between 14.62% and 80.37%, which is indicative of good and excellent quality. The hazard quotient was greater than 1, signifying potential noncarcinogenic risks, particularly in children compared to adults. Despite meeting water quality guidelines, the borehole water poses chronic implications specifically to highly vulnerable children. Targeted monitoring and defluoridation intervention programs are needed to reduce fluoride occurrence in groundwater and promote sustainable groundwater use. Safe groundwater in Saboba cannot be guaranteed; enrichment processes may accelerate with climate change and land use pressures, hence treatment is still needed before consumption to mitigate health risks. • Study integrates hydrochemical, multivariate, and health risk assessment. • Fluoride concentrations were within safe levels. • HQ > 1 for children showing age-dependent vulnerability. • Defluoridation technologies are needed to reduce fluoride exposure. • Epidemiological surveys are needed to validate health challenges.