This paper introduces the Buddha Akṣobhya (Tib. Mi ’khrugs pa), an eastern buddha who gained significance in early Mahāyāna Buddhism alongside Amitābha, the western buddha. Akṣobhya features prominently in the Akṣobhyavyūha. Although the original Indian text of the sūtra is lost, two Chinese translations, one Tibetan translation, and various manuscripts survive. Akṣobhya’s buddha land, Abhirati (Tib. Mngon par dga’ ba), shares qualities of purity and superiority with Amitābha’s Sukhāvatī. However, unlike Sukhāvatī, it is not entirely free of desire, and it allows for the presence of women and the related matters of marriage, pregnancy, and birth. These features, absent in Sukhāvatī, make Abhirati closer to our world. In comparing Akṣobhya’s vows and hand gestures with those of Amitābha, this paper argues that Akṣobhya embodies Śākyamuni’s steadfast determination toward enlightenment, perhaps representing Śākyamuni before his enlightenment. Amitābha, by contrast, may symbolize Śākyamuni’s compassion after enlightenment. Akṣobhya and Abhirati appear frequently in major Mahāyāna scriptures, including the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa sūtra, the Karuṇāpuṇḍarīka sūtra, the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka sūtra, and the Mahāparinirvāṇa mahāsūtra. Thus, it is evident that the Akṣobhyavyūha was widely recognized in Mahāyāna. Similarly, Akṣobhya is significant in Vajrayāna Buddhism as the eastern buddha in the Diamond Realm Mandala. Especially in Tibetan Buddhism, he eventually replaced the great sun buddha as the principal deity, and he remains popular even today. However, the connection between the Vajrayāna and the Mahāyāna Akṣobhya has yet to be clarified. Finally, this paper addresses this relationship and suggests future directions for Akṣobhya research.
Naomi SATO (Mon,) studied this question.