How did Japanese occupiers and Filipino elites transform José Rizal into a tool for their wartime agendas? Analyzing 136 articles from the Tribune (1942–1945), I identify two phases of appropriation. “Orientalization” emphasized Rizal’s alleged Japanese connections to legitimize the occupation, while “nationalization” saw Filipino leaders invoke his legacy to foster unity under the Japanese-sponsored Second Republic. Through this analysis, I demonstrate how propaganda, constrained agency, and resistance shaped national identity, revealing how national icons derive power not from fixed meaning but from their malleability across political projects.
John Lee Candelaria (Tue,) studied this question.