Kernel broken smooth particle hydrodynamics method for crack propagation simulation applied in layered rock cells and tunnels

Understanding the cracking process of layered tunnels requires a high-fidelity method. Improved smooth particle hydrodynamics (SPH), termed kernel broken SPH (KBSPH), was implemented to simulate the crack propagation and deformation of layered rock cells and field layered tunnels with dip angles of 0°–90°, and the results were compared with those of the laboratory tests. Three attempts, including the bedding angle, interlayer distance, and lateral pressure coefficient, were made to investigate the crack propagation and deformation of layered tunnels. Finally, the pros and cons of the KBSPH method applied in the rock field were compared with those of other methods. The results indicate that the KBSPH can explicitly reproduce crack propagation by improving the kernel function with a totally damaged symbol, and the deformation responses have been captured reasonably. We infer that this method is effective and rapid in crack propagation and large deformation simulation for other types of rock tunnels.